Scientific References

This content is for informational purposes only and does not constitute medical or nutritional advice. Speak with your health professional before starting this protocol.

Note: References listed here are provided for transparency and further reading. They do not constitute endorsement of the Fat Loss Sprint protocol by the cited researchers or institutions. Summaries of study findings throughout the guide represent this guide's interpretation of the published data.

Complete bibliography for the Fat Loss Sprint app guide. References are grouped by topic. DOI links and PubMed identifiers are included for direct access to the original research.

A. Foundational VLCD and PSMF Research

  1. Bistrian, B. R., Winterer, J., Blackburn, G. L., et al. (1977). Effect of a protein-sparing diet and brief fast on nitrogen metabolism in mildly obese subjects. Journal of Laboratory and Clinical Medicine, 89(5), 1030–1035. PMID: 853772

  2. Blackburn, G. L., Bistrian, B. R., Flatt, J. P., et al. (1975). Preservation of body protein in the obese during prolonged starvation. Clinical Research, 23, 243A.

  3. Sours, H. E., Frattali, V. P., Brand, C. D., et al. (1981). Sudden death associated with very low calorie weight reduction regimens. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 34(4), 453–461. DOI: 10.1093/ajcn/34.4.453

  4. Wadden, T. A., Stunkard, A. J., & Brownell, K. D. (1983). Very low calorie diets: their efficacy, safety, and future. Annals of Internal Medicine, 99(5), 675–684. DOI: 10.7326/0003-4819-99-5-675

  5. Atkinson, R. L. (1989). Low and very low calorie diets. Medical Clinics of North America, 73(1), 203–215. DOI: 10.1016/S0025-7125(16)30700-X

  6. American Dietetic Association. (1990). Position of the American Dietetic Association: very-low-calorie weight loss diets. Journal of the American Dietetic Association, 90(5), 722–726. PMID: 2186078

  7. Tsai, A. G., & Wadden, T. A. (2006). The evolution of very-low-calorie diets: an update and meta-analysis. Obesity, 14(8), 1283–1293. DOI: 10.1038/oby.2006.146

  8. Baker, S. T., Jerums, G., Fang, A., et al. (2009). Clinical usefulness of the protein-sparing modified fast for the management of obesity. Internal Medicine Journal, 39(6), 414–417. DOI: 10.1111/j.1445-5994.2009.01960.x

B. Rate of Weight Loss and Long-Term Outcomes

  1. Purcell, K., Sumithran, P., Prendergast, L. A., et al. (2014). The effect of rate of weight loss on long-term weight management: a randomised controlled trial. The Lancet Diabetes & Endocrinology, 2(12), 954–962. DOI: 10.1016/S2213-8587(14)70200-1

  2. Nackers, L. M., Ross, K. M., & Perri, M. G. (2010). The association between rate of initial weight loss and long-term success in obesity treatment: does slow and steady win the race? International Journal of Behavioral Medicine, 17(3), 161–167. DOI: 10.1007/s12529-010-9092-y

  3. Ashtary-Larky, D., Bagheri, R., Abbasnezhad, A., et al. (2020). Effects of gradual weight loss v. rapid weight loss on body composition and RMR: a systematic review and meta-analysis. British Journal of Nutrition, 124(11), 1121–1132. DOI: 10.1017/S000711452000224X

  4. Anderson, J. W., Konz, E. C., Frederich, R. C., & Wood, C. L. (2001). Long-term weight-loss maintenance: a meta-analysis of US studies. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 74(5), 579–584. DOI: 10.1093/ajcn/74.5.579

  5. Astrup, A., & Rössner, S. (2000). Lessons from obesity management programmes: greater initial weight loss improves long-term maintenance. Obesity Reviews, 1(1), 17–19. DOI: 10.1046/j.1467-789x.2000.00020.x

C. Weight Maintenance and the National Weight Control Registry

  1. Wing, R. R., & Phelan, S. (2005). Long-term weight loss maintenance. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 82(1 Suppl), 222S–225S. DOI: 10.1093/ajcn/82.1.222S

  2. Thomas, J. G., Bond, D. S., Phelan, S., et al. (2014). Weight-loss maintenance for 10 years in the National Weight Control Registry. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 46(1), 17–23. DOI: 10.1016/j.amepre.2013.08.019

  3. Butryn, M. L., Phelan, S., Hill, J. O., & Wing, R. R. (2007). Consistent self-monitoring of weight: a key component of successful weight loss maintenance. Obesity, 15(12), 3091–3096. DOI: 10.1038/oby.2007.368

  4. Dombrowski, S. U., Knittle, K., Avenell, A., et al. (2014). Long term maintenance of weight loss with non-surgical interventions in obese adults: systematic review and meta-analyses of randomised controlled trials. BMJ, 348, g2646. DOI: 10.1136/bmj.g2646

  5. Hall, K. D., & Kahan, S. (2018). Maintenance of lost weight and long-term management of obesity. Medical Clinics of North America, 102(1), 183–197. DOI: 10.1016/j.mcna.2017.08.012

D. Metabolic Adaptation and Adaptive Thermogenesis

  1. Rosenbaum, M., & Leibel, R. L. (2010). Adaptive thermogenesis in humans. International Journal of Obesity, 34(Suppl 1), S47–S55. DOI: 10.1038/ijo.2010.184

  2. Fothergill, E., Guo, J., Howard, L., et al. (2016). Persistent metabolic adaptation 6 years after "The Biggest Loser" competition. Obesity, 24(8), 1612–1619. DOI: 10.1002/oby.21538

  3. Müller, M. J., Enderle, J., & Bosy-Westphal, A. (2016). Changes in energy expenditure with weight gain and weight loss in humans. Current Obesity Reports, 5(4), 413–423. DOI: 10.1007/s13679-016-0237-4

  4. Tremblay, A., & Chaput, J. P. (2009). Adaptive reduction in thermogenesis and resistance to lose fat in obese men. British Journal of Nutrition, 102(4), 488–492. DOI: 10.1017/S0007114508207245

  5. Polidori, D., Sanghvi, A., Seeley, R. J., & Hall, K. D. (2016). How strongly does appetite counter weight loss? Quantification of the feedback control of human energy intake. Obesity, 24(11), 2289–2295. DOI: 10.1002/oby.21653

E. Hormonal Responses to Caloric Restriction

  1. Sumithran, P., Prendergast, L. A., Delbridge, E., et al. (2011). Long-term persistence of hormonal adaptations to weight loss. New England Journal of Medicine, 365(17), 1597–1604. DOI: 10.1056/NEJMoa1105816

  2. Greenway, F. L. (2015). Physiological adaptations to weight loss and factors favouring weight regain. International Journal of Obesity, 39(8), 1188–1196. DOI: 10.1038/ijo.2015.59

  3. Rosenbaum, M., Hirsch, J., Gallagher, D. A., & Leibel, R. L. (2008). Long-term persistence of adaptive thermogenesis in subjects who have maintained a reduced body weight. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 88(4), 906–912. DOI: 10.1093/ajcn/88.4.906

F. Protein, Muscle Preservation, and Body Composition

  1. Phillips, S. M., & Van Loon, L. J. C. (2011). Dietary protein for athletes: from requirements to optimum adaptation. Journal of Sports Sciences, 29(Suppl 1), S29–S38. DOI: 10.1080/02640414.2011.619204

  2. Morton, R. W., Murphy, K. T., McKellar, S. R., et al. (2018). A systematic review, meta-analysis and meta-regression of the effect of protein supplementation on resistance training-induced gains in muscle mass and strength in healthy adults. British Journal of Sports Medicine, 52(6), 376–384. DOI: 10.1136/bjsports-2017-097608

  3. Mettler, S., Mitchell, N., & Tipton, K. D. (2010). Increased protein intake reduces lean body mass loss during weight loss in athletes. Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise, 42(2), 326–337. DOI: 10.1249/MSS.0b013e3181b2ef8e

  4. Heymsfield, S. B., Gonzalez, M. C., Shen, W., et al. (2014). Weight loss composition is one-fourth fat-free mass: a critical review and critique of this widely cited rule. Obesity Reviews, 15(4), 310–321. DOI: 10.1111/obr.12143

  5. Forbes, G. B. (2000). Body fat content influences the body composition response to nutrition and exercise. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 904(1), 359–365. DOI: 10.1111/j.1749-6632.2000.tb06482.x

  6. Donnelly, J. E., Sharp, T., Houmard, J., et al. (1993). Muscle hypertrophy with large-scale weight loss and resistance training. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 58(4), 561–565. DOI: 10.1093/ajcn/58.4.561

  7. Chaston, T. B., Dixon, J. B., & O'Brien, P. E. (2007). Changes in fat-free mass during significant weight loss: a systematic review. International Journal of Obesity, 31(5), 743–750. DOI: 10.1038/sj.ijo.0803483

  8. Willoughby, D., Hewlings, S., & Kalman, D. (2018). Body composition changes in weight loss: strategies and supplementation for maintaining lean body mass, a brief review. Nutrients, 10(12), 1876. DOI: 10.3390/nu10121876

  9. Jäger, R., Kerksick, C. M., Campbell, B. I., et al. (2017). International Society of Sports Nutrition position stand: protein and exercise. Journal of the International Society of Sports Nutrition, 14, 20. DOI: 10.1186/s12970-017-0177-8

G. Resistance Training During Caloric Restriction

  1. Garthe, I., Raastad, T., Refsnes, P. E., et al. (2011). Effect of two different weight-loss rates on body composition and strength and power-related performance in elite athletes. International Journal of Sport Nutrition and Exercise Metabolism, 21(2), 97–104. DOI: 10.1123/ijsnem.21.2.97

  2. Helms, E. R., Aragon, A. A., & Fitschen, P. J. (2014). Evidence-based recommendations for natural bodybuilding contest preparation: nutrition and supplementation. Journal of the International Society of Sports Nutrition, 11, 20. DOI: 10.1186/1550-2783-11-20

  3. Schoenfeld, B. J. (2010). The mechanisms of muscle hypertrophy and their application to resistance training. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 24(10), 2857–2872. DOI: 10.1519/JSC.0b013e3181e840f3

H. Diet Breaks and Intermittent Energy Restriction

  1. Byrne, N. M., Sainsbury, A., King, N. A., et al. (2018). Intermittent energy restriction improves weight loss efficiency in obese men: the MATADOR study. International Journal of Obesity, 42(2), 129–138. DOI: 10.1038/ijo.2017.206

  2. Campbell, B. I., Aguilar, D., Colenso-Semple, L. M., et al. (2020). Intermittent energy restriction attenuates the loss of fat free mass in resistance trained individuals. A randomized controlled trial. Journal of Functional Morphology and Kinesiology, 5(1), 19. DOI: 10.3390/jfmk5010019

  3. Siedler, M. R., De Souza, M. J., Engel, S., et al. (2023). The effects of intermittent diet breaks during 25% energy restriction on body composition and resting metabolic rate in resistance-trained females: A randomized controlled trial. Nutrients, 15(9), 2072. DOI: 10.3390/nu15092072

  4. Headland, M. L., Clifton, P. M., & Keogh, J. B. (2019). Effect of intermittent compared to continuous energy restriction on weight loss and weight maintenance after 12 months in healthy overweight or obese adults. International Journal of Obesity, 43(10), 2028–2036. DOI: 10.1038/s41366-018-0247-2

  5. Sainsbury, A., Wood, R. E., Seimon, R. V., et al. (2018). Rationale for novel intermittent dieting strategies to attenuate adaptive responses to energy restriction. Obesity Reviews, 19(Suppl 1), 47–60. DOI: 10.1111/obr.12787

I. Diabetes and Metabolic Health

  1. Lean, M. E. J., Leslie, W. S., Barnes, A. C., et al. (2018). Primary care-led weight management for remission of type 2 diabetes (DiRECT): an open-label, cluster-randomised trial. The Lancet, 391(10120), 541–551. DOI: 10.1016/S0140-6736(17)33102-1

  2. Lean, M. E. J., Leslie, W. S., Barnes, A. C., et al. (2019). Durability of a primary care-led weight-management intervention for remission of type 2 diabetes: 2-year results of the DiRECT open-label, cluster-randomised trial. The Lancet Diabetes & Endocrinology, 7(5), 344–355. DOI: 10.1016/S2213-8587(19)30068-3

J. Psychological Aspects of Dieting

  1. Westenhoefer, J., Stunkard, A. J., & Pudel, V. (1999). Validation of the flexible and rigid control dimensions of dietary restraint. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 26(1), 53–64. DOI: 10.1002/(SICI)1098-108X(199907)26:1<53::AID-EAT7>3.0.CO;2-N

  2. Bandura, A. (1977). Self-efficacy: toward a unifying theory of behavioral change. Psychological Review, 84(2), 191–215. DOI: 10.1037/0033-295X.84.2.191

  3. Lally, P., van Jaarsveld, C. H. M., Potts, H. W. W., & Wardle, J. (2010). How are habits formed: Modelling habit formation in the real world. European Journal of Social Psychology, 40(6), 998–1009. DOI: 10.1002/ejsp.674

K. Clinical Guidelines and Position Statements

  1. National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute. (1998). Clinical guidelines on the identification, evaluation, and treatment of overweight and obesity in adults. NIH Publication No. 98-4083. Available at: NCBI Bookshelf

  2. NICE. (2014). Obesity: identification, assessment and management. Clinical guideline [CG189]. Available at: nice.org.uk

  3. Caprio, M., Infante, M., Moriconi, E., et al. (2019). Very-low-calorie ketogenic diet (VLCKD) in the management of metabolic diseases: systematic review and consensus statement from the Italian Society of Endocrinology. Journal of Endocrinological Investigation, 42(11), 1365–1386. DOI: 10.1007/s40618-019-01061-2

  4. Muscogiuri, G., El Ghoch, M., Colao, A., et al. (2021). European guidelines for obesity management in adults with a very low-calorie ketogenic diet: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Obesity Facts, 14(2), 222–245. DOI: 10.1159/000515381

  5. Paoli, A., Cerullo, G., Bosco, G., et al. (2020). Scientific evidence underlying contraindications to the ketogenic diet: an update. Obesity Reviews, 21(10), e13053. DOI: 10.1111/obr.13053

L. Supplementation and Safety

  1. Weinsier, R. L., & Krumdieck, C. L. (2000). Dairy foods and bone health: examination of the evidence. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 72(3), 681–689. DOI: 10.1093/ajcn/72.3.681

  2. Festi, D., Colecchia, A., Orsini, M., et al. (1998). Gallbladder motility and gallstone formation in obese patients following very low calorie diets. International Journal of Obesity, 22(6), 592–600. DOI: 10.1038/sj.ijo.0800631

M. Energy Expenditure and Body Weight Regulation

  1. Hall, K. D. (2008). What is the required energy deficit per unit weight loss? International Journal of Obesity, 32(3), 573–576. DOI: 10.1038/sj.ijo.0803720

  2. Kreitzman, S. N., Coxon, A. Y., & Szaz, K. F. (1992). Glycogen storage: illusions of easy weight loss, excessive weight regain, and distortions in estimates of body composition. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 56(1 Suppl), 292S–293S. DOI: 10.1093/ajcn/56.1.292S

  3. Mifflin, M. D., St Jeor, S. T., Hill, L. A., et al. (1990). A new predictive equation for resting energy expenditure in healthy individuals. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 51(2), 241–247. DOI: 10.1093/ajcn/51.2.241

  4. Ostendorf, D. M., Caldwell, A. E., Creasy, S. A., et al. (2019). Physical activity energy expenditure and total daily energy expenditure in successful weight loss maintainers. Obesity, 27(3), 496–504. DOI: 10.1002/oby.22373

  5. Coutinho, S. R., With, E., Rehfeld, J. F., et al. (2018). The impact of rate of weight loss on body composition and compensatory mechanisms during weight reduction: a randomized control trial. Clinical Nutrition, 37(4), 1154–1162. DOI: 10.1016/j.clnu.2017.04.027

N. Additional References

  1. Saris, W. H. M. (2001). Very-low-calorie diets and sustained weight loss. Obesity Research, 9(Suppl 4), 295S–301S. DOI: 10.1038/oby.2001.134

  2. Mustajoki, P., & Pekkarinen, T. (2001). Very low energy diets in the treatment of obesity. Obesity Reviews, 2(1), 61–72. DOI: 10.1046/j.1467-789x.2001.00026.x

  3. Johansson, K., Neovius, M., & Hemmingsson, E. (2014). Effects of anti-obesity drugs, diet, and exercise on weight-loss maintenance after a very-low-calorie diet or low-calorie diet: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 99(1), 14–23. DOI: 10.3945/ajcn.113.070052

  4. Wadden, T. A., & Stunkard, A. J. (1986). Controlled trial of very low calorie diet, behavior therapy, and their combination in the treatment of obesity. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 54(4), 482–488. DOI: 10.1037/0022-006X.54.4.482

  5. Peos, J. J., Norton, L. E., Helms, E. R., et al. (2019). Intermittent dieting: theoretical considerations for the athlete. Sports, 7(1), 22. DOI: 10.3390/sports7010022

  6. Westenhoefer, J., Engel, D., Holst, C., et al. (2013). Cognitive and weight-related correlates of flexible and rigid restrained eating behaviour. Eating Behaviors, 14(1), 69–72. DOI: 10.1016/j.eatbeh.2012.10.015